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Geography and political divisions, ancient and modern

A country in Western Asia, which in modern times comprises all that region bounded on the north by the highlands of the Taurus, on the south by Egypt, on the east by Mesopotamia and the Arabia Desert, and on the west by the Mediterranean; thus including with its area the ancient and modern countries of Aram or NorthSyria, a portion of the Hittiteand Mitanni kingdoms, Phœnicia, the land ofCanaan or Palestine, and even a section of the SinaiticPeninsula. Strictly speaking, however, and especially from the point of view of Biblicaland classical geography, which is the one followed in this article, Syria proper composes only that portion of the above-mentioned territories that is bounded on the north and northwest by the Taurus and Asia Minor, on the south by Palestine, on the east by the Euphrates, the Syro-Arabian desert andMesopotamia, and on the west by the Mediterranean. The northern portion is elevated, the eastern is level, extending to the Syro-Arabian desert; the northwestern is crowned by the Amanus and Taurus mountains, while the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon are parallel ranges on the north of Palestine or south of Syria. Between these two ranges is the long narrow valley calledCæle-Syria (Hollow Syria). Its chief rivers are the Litâny(Leontes), the Orontes (Al-'Asi), and the Barad orAbana. Cæle-Syria varies in breadth from three or four miles to fifteen miles, and in some places broken by projecting spurs of theLebanon ranges. At its northern end it curves round to the west and opens out to the Mediterranean. It has two slopes, a northerly and a southerly one, and both are fertile and beautiful. This valley was always an important route of travel between Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean coast, Arabia, and Egypt. The whole ofSyria, however, is about 250 miles in length, and an average of 130 miles in breadth, having a total area of about 32,500 square miles. The most important towns of Syria in ancient times were Damascus, Karkamish, Hamath, Baalbec, Palmyra or Tadmur,Riblah, Antioch, Daphne,Seleucia, Abila, Chalcis, Lybo, Laodicea, Arethusa, and Apamæa, whereas the famous cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beritus Byblos, and Aradusbelong properly speaking to Phœnicia. The most important towns of modernSyria are Alexandretta,Antakia, Beirut, Aleppo, Latakyah, Hamah, Homs, Tripoli, Damascus, Sayda,Akka and Jaffa.

The name "Syria" was formerly believed to be either an abbreviation of "Assyria" or derived from Tsur (Tyre), hence Tsurya, and that it was of Greek origin. This, however, is untenable, as the name, in all probability, is derived from the oldBabylonian name Suri, applied originally to the north-eastern portion of the present Syria. Later on the name Syria was applied by the Greeks and the Romansto the whole of Syria, or the country lying between the Euphrates, the Mediterranean, the Taurus, and Egypt. By theBabylonians and theAssyrians it was called "Amurru" (the Land of theAmorites) and Martu (the West-Land). The extreme northern part of it was also known as "Khatti", or the Land of the Hittites, whilst the most southern region was known as "Kena'nu" or "Kanaan" (Palestine). In Arabic it is called either "Suriyya" (Syria) or "Al-Sham" (the country situated to the "left"), in opposition to "El-Yemen", or South Arabia, which is situated to the "right". The political andgeographic divisions of Syria have been numerous and constantly varying. In the Old Testament it is generally called "Aram", and its inhabitant "Arameans". But there were several Biblical"Arams", viz: "Aram-naharaim" or "Aram of the Two Rivers", i.e.,Mesopotamia; "Paddon-Aram" (the region of Haran), in the extreme north ofMesopotamia; "Aram-Ma'rak" to the north of Palestine; "Aram-beth Rehob", "Aram-Sobah", etc. The Syrian Aram, however, which corresponds to the classicalSyria is called generally in the Old Testament "Aram ofDamascus" from the principal city of the country. It is one of these Arameans, or Syrians, who occupied Central Syria, withDamascus as the capital city, that we hear most in theOld Testament.

During the Greek and Romandominations the political divisions of Syria were indefinite and almost unintelligible. Strabo mentions five great provinces: (1) Commagene, a small territory in the extreme north, with Samosata for capital, situated on the Euphrates; (2) Seleucia, lyingsouth of the former, and subdivided into four divisions, according to the number of its chief cities, viz: Antioch Epidaphne, Seleucia, in Pieria; Apamæa, andLaodicea; (3) Cæle-Syria, comprising Laodicea andLibanum, Chalcia, Abilene,Damascus, Ituræa, and others farther south, included in Palestine; (4) Phœnicia; (5) Judæa. Pliny's divisions are still more numerous than those of Strabo. It appears that each city on rising to importance gave its name to a surrounding territory, larger or smaller, and this in timeassumed the rank of aprovince. Ptolemy mentions thirteen provinces:Cammagene, Pieria,Cyrrhestica, Seleucia, Casiotis, Chalibonitis, Chalcis, Apamene, Laodicea, Phœnicia, Cæle-Syria,Palmyrene, and Batanea, and he gives a long list of the cities contained in them. Under the Romans, Syria became a province of the empire. Some portions of it were permitted to remain for a time under the rule of petty princes, dependent on the imperial government. Gradually, however, all these were incorporated, andAntioch was the capital. Under Hadrian the provincewas divided into two parts: Syria-Major, on the north, and Syria-Phænice, on the south. Towards the close of the fourth century another partition of Syria was made, and formed the basis of itsecclesiastical government: (1) Syria Prima, with Antiochas its capital; (2) Syria Secunda, with Apamæa as its capital; (3) PhœniciaPrima, including the greater part of ancient Phœnicia, with Tyre as its capital; (4) Phœnicia Secunda, also called Phœnicia ad Libanum, with Damascus as its capital. During the Arabiandomination, i.e., from the seventh to the fifteenth century, Syria was generally divided into six large districts (Giunds), viz: (1) Filistîn (Palestine), consisting of Judæa,Samaria, and a portion of the territory east of the Jordan, its capital was at Ramlah,Jerusalem ranking next; (2)Urdun (Jordan) of which the capital was Tabaria (Tiberias), roughly speaking it consisted of the rest of Palestine as far as Tyre; (3)Damascus, a district which included Baalbeck, Tripoli,Beirut, and the Hauran; (4) Hams, including Hamah; (5)Qinnasrin, corresponding to northern Syria; the capital at first was Qinnasrin, to the south of Aleppo, by which it was afterwards superseded; (6) the sixth district was the military frontier ('awâsim) bordering upon theByzantine dominions in Asia Minor. Under the presentTurkish rule, Syria is divided into the following six vilayets, or provinces: (1) theVilayet of Aleppo, with the 3 liwas of Aleppo, Marash, andUrfa; (2) the independent Liwa of Zor (Deir es-Zor); (3) the Vilayet of Beirut, including the south coast of the mouth of the Orontes, the mountain-district of the Nosairiyeh and Lebanon to the south of Tripoli, further the town of Beirut and the country between the sea and the Jordan from Saida to the north of Jaffa, and is divided into 5 liwas: Ladikiyeh,Tarabulus, Beirut, 'Akka (Acre), and Nabulus; (4)Lebanon, from the north of Tripoli to the north of Saida, exclusive of the town ofBeirut, forms an independent liwa, administered by a governor and with the rank of mushîr; (5) the Vilayet of Suriyya (Syria), comprises the country from Hamah to the Hijaz—the capital isDamascus — and is divided into the liwas of Hamah,Damascus, Hauran, andKerak; (6) El-Quds, orJerusalem, is an independent liwa under amutesarrif of the first class. At the head of each vilayet is a vali, or governor-general, whose province is divided into departments (sanjak, liwa), each presided over by a mutesarrif; each department again contains so many divisions (kaimmakamlik, kada), each under a kaimmakam; and these again are divided into districts (mudiriyeh, nahiya) under mudirs. The independent liwas of Ez-Zor and El-Quds stand in direct connexion with the central government atConstantinople.

Ethnography of modern Syria

Ethnographically, the modern inhabitants of Syria consist of Arabs, Turks,Jews, and Franks orEuropeans. (1) The Syrians are direct descendants of the ancient Arameans who inhabited the country from about the first millenniumB.C. and who spoke Aramaic. Most of these embraced Christianity and spoke Aramaic until about the seventh century, whenArab invasion forced the Arabic language to become the vernacular tongue of the country. Aramaic, however, held its ground for a considerable time and traces of it are still to be found in the liturgy of the so-calledSyrian, Chaldean, andMaronite Churches, as well as in three villages of the anti-Libanus. (2) The Arabianpopulation consists of hadari, or settles, and bedawi (p. bedu) or nomadic tribes. The settled population is of very mixed origin, but the Bedouins are mostly of mixed Arab blood. They are the direct descendants of thehalf-savage nomads who have inhabited Arabia from time immemorial. Their dwellings consist of portable tents made of black goats' hair. There are two main branches. One of these consist of the 'Ænezch whomigrate in winter towards Central Arabia, while the other embraces those tribes which remain permanently inSyria. (3) The Turks are not a numerous class in the community of Syria. They are intellectually inferior to the Arabs, but the lower classes are generally characterized by patriarchalsimplicity of manner. There are two parties of Turks, the Old, and the Young, orLiberal Party. In NorthernSyria, as well as on the Great Hermon, are still several nomadic Turkish tribes, orTurcomans, whose mode of life is the same as that of the Bedouin Arabs. (4) The Jewswho remained in the country are but few in number; most of those who now reside in Palestine are comparatively recent settlers from Europe. (5) The Franks (Europeans) form a very small proportion of the population. Distinctfrom them are the so-called "Levantines", who are eitherEuropeans or descendants of Europeans, who have entirely adopted the manners of the country.
Religions of modern Syria

In regard to religion, the modern inhabitants of Syria consist of Mohammedans,Christians, and Jews. The first are divided intoSunnites, or orthodoxMohammedans, Metawileh,Nusairiyyeh, or Ansairiyyeh, and Ismaliyyeh. To these may be added the Druzes. The Christians includeRoman Catholics of the Latin Rite; Roman Catholic Greeksor Melchites; Maronites (allRoman Catholic); Roman Catholic Syrians, Roman Catholic Chaldeans, Roman Catholic Armenians,Schismatic Syrians, i.e.,Monophysites, commonly called Jacobites; SchismaticArmenians, CatholicArmenians, and Protestants.

The Mohammedans or Moslems

The Moslems are and have been for the last twelve centuries the lords of the land and still constitute the great majority of its inhabitants. They are generally ignorant and fanatical, although of lateeducation has spread among the better class in the larger towns. Till a few years ago they were inclined to look with contempt on all other peoples and religions. This, however, is gradually disappearing owing to the wonderful strides theChristians of Syria have been making of late in the matterof schools, universities,hospitals, seminaries, andeducational and commercial institutions. The SyrianMuslims are generally noble in bearing, polite in address, and profuse in hospitality; but they are regardless oftruth, dishonest in their dealings, and immoral in their conduct. In large towns the greater proportion of the upper classes are both physically and morallyfeeble, owing to the effects of polygamy, earlymarriages, and degradingvices; but the peasantry are robust and vigorous, and much might be hoped from them if they were brought under the influence of liberalinstitutions, and if they had examples around them of the industry and the enterprise of WesternEurope. Experience, indeed, has already shown that they are not slow to adopt the improvement of other lands. In religion, theMohammedans of Syria areSunnites, or traditionalists—that is, in addition to the written word of the Koran, they recognize the Sunna, a collection of traditionsayings of the Prophet, which is a kind of supplement to the Korandirecting the rightobservance of many things omitted in that book. They are in general exact in observance of the outwardrites of their religion.

The Metawileh

The Metawileh (sing. Metaly) are the followers of 'Aly, the son-in-law of Mohammed. His predecessors, Abu Bekr, 'Omar, and Othman, they do not acknowledge as truekhalifs. 'Aly they maintain is the lawful Imam; and they hold that the supreme authority, both spiritual and temporal, belongs of right to his descendants alone. They reject the Sunna, and are therefore regarded asheretics by the orthodox. They are allied in faith to theShi'ites of Persia. They are almost as scrupulous in theirceremonial observance as the Hindus. The districts in which they chiefly reside areBa'albek, where their chiefs are the noted family of Harfush; Belad Besharah, on the southern part of theLebanon range; and a district on the west bank of the Orontes, around the village of Hurmul. They also occupy several scattered villages inLebanon.

The Nusairiyyeh

It is not easy to tell whether these people areMohammedans or not. Theirreligion still remains a secret, notwithstanding all attempts lately made to dive into their mysteries. They are represented as holding afaith half Christian and halfMohammedan. They believein the transmigration ofsouls, and observe in a singular, perhaps idolatrous, manner a few of theceremonies common in theEastern Church. They inhabit a range of mountains extending from the great valley north of Lebanon to the gorge of the Orontes atAntioch.

The Ismailiyyeh

The Ismailiyyeh, who inhabit a few villages on the eastern slopes of the Ansairiyeh mountains, resemble theNusairiyyeh in this, that theirreligion is a mystery. There were originally a religious-political subdivision of theShi'ites, and are the feeble remains of a people too well known in the time of theCrusades as the Assassins. They have still their chief seat in the castle of Masyad, on the mountains west of Hamah.

The Druzes

(The generic name in Arabic is ed-Deruz, sing. Derzy). The peculiar doctrines of theDruzes was first propagated in Egypt by the notoriousHakim, third of the Fatimitedynasty. This khalif, who gave himself out as aprophet, though he actedmore like a madman, taught a system of half-materialism, asserting that the Deityresided in 'Aly. In A.D. 1017 aPersian of the sect ofBatanism called MohammedBen-Ismail ed-Dorazy, settled in Egypt, and became a devoted follower and stimulator of Hakim. He not only affected to believe in and propagate the pretensions of the newEgyptian prophet, but he added to his doctrines that of the transmigration ofsouls, which he had brought from his native country, and he carried his fanaticism to such an extent that the people at last drove him out of Egypt. He took refuge in Wady el-Teim, at the western base of Hermon; and being secretly supplied with money by the Egyptian monarch, propagated his dogmas, and became the founder of theDruzes. His system was enlarged, and to some degree modified, by otherdisciples of Hakim, especially by the PersianHamzeh, whom the Druzestill venerate as the founder of their sect and the author of their law. Hamzeh tried to gain over the Christians by representing himself as theMessiah whose advent they expected. For further details see DRUZES.

The Jews

The Jews of Syria are of several different classes. The Sephardim are the Spanish-Portuguese Jews, who immigrated after the expulsion of the Jews fromSpain under Isabella I; most of them now speak Arabic, though some still speak aSpanish patois. The Ashkenazim are fromRussia, Galicia, Hungary,Bohemia, Moravia, Germany, and Holland, and speak the dialect known as Yiddish. These again are well divided into the Perushim and the Chasadim. The Jews of theEast have retained theircharacter to a considerable extent, and are generally tall and slender in stature. They live in the towns, generally in a quarter of their own.

History of Christianity in Syria

The history of Christianity inSyria proper during the first three centuries and down to the Council of Nicea (A.D. 325), centres chiefly aboutAntioch, while from the time of the Council of Nicea to theArab invasion it is absorbed into that of the AntiochinePatriarchate (see THE CHURCH OF ANTIOCH), just as the Christianity of Palestine is practically that of Jerusalem, of Egypt, that or Alexandria, of the Westthat of Rome, ofMesopotamia and Persiathat of Seleucia Ctesiphon, and of the Byzantine Greek Church that ofConstantinople. As JewishChristianity originated atJerusalem, so GentileChristianity started atAntioch, then the leading center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter and Paul as itsapostles. From Antioch it spread to the various cities and provinces of Syria, among the HellenisticSyrians as well as among the Hellenistic Jews who, as a result of the great rebellions against the Romans in A.D. 70 and 130, were driven out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria. The spread of the new religionwas so rapid and successful that at the time ofConstantine Syria was honeycombed with Christianchurches. The history of theChristian Church in Syria during the second and third centuries is rather obscure, yet sufficient data to furnish a fair idea of the rapid spread of Christianity inSyria have been collected by Harnack in his well-known work "The Mission andExpansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries" (Eng. Tr., 2nd ed., London1908, vol. II, pp. 120 sqq.).

Outside the city of Antioch, that "fair city of the Greeks" (see Isaac of Antioch's"Carmen", 15, ed. Bickell, i, 294), Syriac was the language of the people; in fact it was spoken by the lower classes in Antiochitself and only among the upper classes of the Greektowns was it displaced byGreek. The Syriac spirit was wedded to Greek, however, even here, and remained the predominant factor inreligious and social life, although at first and indeed for long it did not look as if it would. Yet, in this Christianworld, Christianity seems to have operated from Edessa, rather than from Antioch. The wide territory lying between these cities was consequently evangelizedfrom two centres during the third century: from Antiochin the West by means ofGreek Christian propaganda, and from Edessa in the Eastby means of one which wasSyro-Christian. The inference is that the larger towns practically adopted the former while the country towns and villages went over to the latter. At the same time there was also aWestern Syrian movement ofChristianity, thought it did not amount to much, both in and after the days of Paul of Samosata and Zenobia. The work of conversion, so it would appear, made greater headway in Cæle-Syria, however, than in Phœnicia. No fewer than twenty-twobishops from Cæle-Syriaattended Nicea (twochorepiscopi), including several who had Hellenic names. Hence we may infer the existence of no inconsiderable number of national Syrian Christians. By about 325 the district round Antioch seems to have contained a very large number of Christians, and one dated (331) inscriptionruns as follows: "Christ, have mercy; there is but one God."

In Chysostom's day theseSyria villages appear to have been practically Christian.Lucian, the priest of Antioch, declares in his speech before the magistrate inNicomedia (311) that "almost the greater part of the world now adheres to this Truth, yea whole cities; even if any of this evidence seems suspect, there is nodoubt regarding multitudes of country-folk, who are innocent of guile" (pars paene mundi eam maior huic veritate adstipulatur, urbesintegræ, aut si in his alquid suspectum videtur, contestatur de his etiam agrestis manus, ignarafigmenti); and although this may reflect impressions he had just received in Bythynia, there was substantial ground for the statement in the local circumstances of Syria. The number of clergy in 303 throughout Syria is evident from Eusebius, Church History VIII.6: "An enormous number were put in prison at every place. The prisons, hitherto reserved formurderers and riflers of graves, were now packed everywhere with bishops,priests, deacons, lectors, andexorcists". Further data at our command are as follows: (1) Acts 15 already mentionschurches in Syria besidesAntioch. (2) Ignatius, apropos of Antioch(Philadelphians 10) mentions "Churches in the neighbourhood" which had already bishops of their own. These certainly includedSeleucia, the seaport ofAntioch, mentioned in Acts 8:4. (3) Apamæa was a centre of Elkesaites. (4)Dionys. Alex. (in Eusebius,Church History VIII.5) observes that the Romanchurch frequently sent contributions to the SyrianChurches. (5) The document of the Antiochene Synod of 268 (Eusebius, VII, xxx), mentions, in connexion withAntioch, "bishops of the neighbouring country and cities".

The towns in the vicinity ofAntioch, both far and near, must already have hadbishops, in all or nearly all cases, if country bishopswere in existence. From Eus. VI, vii, we learn that by about A.D. 200 there was aChristian community asRhossus which was gravitating towards Antioch. (6) Two chorepiscopi fromCæle-Syria attended theCouncil of Nicea. In Martyrol Hieron. (Achelis, "Mart.Hieron," p. 168) a martyrdomis noted as having occurred "in Syria provencia regioneApamæ vico Aprovavicta" but both of these places are unknown. (7) Bishops from the following places in Cæle-Syria were present at Nicea:Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, Apameæ, Raphaneæ, Hieropolis (=Maybug, Bambyce), Germanicia,Samosata, Doliche, BalaneæGabula, Zeugma, Larissa,Epiphania, Arethusa,Neocæsarea, Cyrrhus, Gindron, Arbokadama, andGabala. These towns lay in the most diverse districts of this wide country, on the seaboard, in the valley of theOrantes, in the Euphrates Valley, between the Orontes and the Euphrates, and in the north. Their distribution shows that Christianity was fairly uniform and fairly strong in Syria about 325, as is strikingly shown by therescript of Daza to Sabinus (Eusebius, Church HistoryIX.9), for we must understand the experiences undergone by the churchesof Syrian Antioch and Asia Minor, when we read the emperor's words about almost all men abandoning the worship of the gods and attaching themselves to theChristian people. This remark is not one to be taken simply as a rhetorical flourish. For later speaking in one place about the first edict of Diocletian, Eusebiusproceeds as follows: "Not long afterwards, as some people in the district calledMelitene and other districts throughout Syria attempted to usurp the kingdom, a royal decree went forth to the effect that the head officials of the churches everywhere should be put in prison and chains" (VIII, vi, 8). Eusebiusdoes not say it in so many words, but the context makes it quite clear that the emperor held the Christiansresponsible for both of these outbreaks (that of Melitenebeing unknown to history). This means that theChristians in Melitene andSyria must have been extremely numerous, otherwise the emperor would never have met revolutionary outbreaks (which, in Syria, and, one may conjecture, inMelitene also, originated with the army) with edictsagainst the Christian clergy. The Bishop of Rhossus was not at Nicea (Rhossus, however, may also be assigned to Cilicia). But as we already know, Rhossusdid possess a Christian Church about A.D. 200, which came under the supervision of the church atAntioch. There was a JewishChristian church at Beræa(Aleppo) in the fourth century. The local gentileChristian church cannot have been important; cf. The experience of Julian there (Ep. xvii, p. 516, ed. Hertlein).

As to Phœnicia, one of the most important provinces ofSyria, the history ofChristianity there is also obscure. Here again we learn from the Acts of the Apostles that Christianityreached Phœnician cities at a very early period. WhenPaul was converted there were already Christians atDamascus (Acts 9:2, 10 sqq.,19; for Christians in Tyre see22:4; for Ptolemais see 21:7; for Sidon, 27:3; and in general, 11:19). Themetropolitan position ofTyre, which was the leading city of the East for manufactures and trade, made it the ecclesiasticalcapital of the province; but it is questionable if Tyreenjoyed this pre-eminence as early as the second century, for at the Palestinian Synod on theEastern controversy, Cassius, the Bishop of Tyre, and Clarus, the Bishop ofPtolemais, took counsel with the Bishop of Ælia and ofCæsarea (Eusebius, Church History V.25), to whom they seem to have been subordinate. On the other hand, Marinus of Tyre is mentioned in a letter ofDionysius of Alexandria (ibid, VII, v, 1) in such a way as to make his metropolitandignity extremely probable.Martyrs in or from Tyre, during the great persecution, are noted by Eusebius, VIII, vii, 1 (VIII, viii) VIII, xiii, 3.Origen died at Tyre and wasburied there. It is curious also to note that the learnedAntiochine priest, Dorotheus, the teacher of Eusebius, was appointed by the emperor (Diocletian, or one of his immediate predecessors) to be the director of the purple-dyeing trade in Tyre(Eusebius, Church HistoryVII.32). A particularlylibelous edict issued by theEmperor Daza against theChristians is preserved byEusebius (IX, vii) who copied it from the pillar in Tyre on which it was cut, and the historian's work reaches its climax in the great speech upon the reconstruction of the church at Tyre, "by far the most beautiful in all Phœnicia" (X, iv). This speech is dedicated toPaulinus, Bishop of Tyre, in whose honour indeed the whole of the tenth book of itshistory is written. Unfortunately we get no information whatever, in this long address, upon theChristian community at Tyre. We can only infer the size of the community from the size of the church building, which may have stood where the ruins of the large crusadingchurch now astonish the traveller (cf. Baedecker's "Palestine", pp. 300 sq). Tyreas a Christian city was to Phœnicia what Cæsarea was to Palestine. It seems to have blossomed out as a manufacturing and trading centre during the imperial age, especially in the third century. A number of passages in Jerome give characteristic estimates of its size and importance. InSidon, Origen stayed for some time (Hom, xiv, 2 in Josuam), while it was there that the presbyter Zenobius(Eusebius, Church HistoryVIII.13.3) died in the greatpersecution, as did someChristians at Damascus (IX, v). Eleven bishops, but nochorepsicopi, were present at the Council of Nicea from Phœnicia; namely thebishops of Tyre, Ptolemais,Damascus, Sidon, Tripolis, Paneas, Berytus, Palmyra, Alassus, Emessa, andAntaradus. From Eusebiuswe also learn that manyJewish Christians resided in Paneas (Eusebius, Church History VII.17.18). Tripolis is mentioned even before theCouncil of Nicea (in "Mart. Pal., " III, where a Christiannamed Dionysius comes from Tripolis); the Apostolic Constitutions (vii, 46) declare that Marthones was bishopof this town as early as theApostolic age; while, previous to the Council of Nicea, Hellenicus, the localbishop, opposed Arius(Thedoret, Church History I.4), though Gregory, Bishop of Berytus, sided with him (loc. cit.; for Berytus, see also "Mart. Pal.", iv). The localchurch was burnt underJulian (cf. Theodoret, Church History IV.20). Eusebius (VIII, xiii) calls Silvanus, at the period of the greatpersecution, bishop, not ofEmesa, but of "the churchesround Emesa". Emesa thus resembled Gaza; owing to the fanaticism of the inhabitants, Christians were unable to reside within the town itself, they had to quarter themselves in the adjoining villages. Anatolius, the successor of Silvanus, was the first to take up his abode within the town.Theodoret (Church HistoryIII.7), writing at the age ofJulian, says that the churchthere was xxx (newly built). With regard to Heliopolis, we have this definite information, that the town acquired its first church andbishop, thanks toConstantine, after 325 (cf. "Vita Constant.", III, lviii, andSocrates, I, xviii). The "Mart. Syriacum" mentions onemartyr, Lucius, at Heliopolis.Christians were also deported ("Mart. Pal.", XIII, ii) by Daza to Lebanon forpenal servitude. Onemartyrdom makes it plain that there were Christians atByblus. At Choda (Kabun), north of Damascus, there were also numerous JewishChristians in the days ofEusebius.

We have no information in detail upon the diffusion and density of the Christianpopulation throughout Phœnicia. Rather general and satisfactory information is available for Syria, aprovince with which Phœnicia was at that time very closely bound up; even the Phœnicia tongue had long been dislodged bySyriac. From the letters ofChysostum and the state of matters which still obtained in the second half of the sixth century, however, it is quite clear that Christianitygot a firm footing only on the seaboard, while the inland districts of Phœnicia remained pagan for the most part. Yet it was but recently, not earlier than the third century, that these Phœnician-Hellenic cults had experienced a powerful revival. The situation is quite clear: wherever Christianitywent, it implied Hellenizing, and vice versa. Christianity, in the first instance, only secured a firm footing where there were Greeks. The majority of the Phœnicia towns where Christian bishops can be traced lay on the coast; i.e., there were towns with a strong Greekpopulation. In the largepagan cities, Emesa andHeliopolis, Christians were not tolerated. Once we leave out inland locations where "heretics", viz., Marcionitesand Jewish Christiansresided, the only place in the interior where Christians can be found are Damascus, Paneas, and Palmyra.Damascus, the great trading city, was Greek (cf. Mommsen, "Rom. Gesch.", V., p. 473; Eng. Trans, II, 146); so was Paneas. InPalmyra, the headquarters of the desert trade, a strongGreek element also existed(Mommsen, p. 425 sq.; Eng.Trans, II, 96 sq.). The national royal house atPalmyra, with its Greekinfusion, was well-disposed not towards the Greek but towards the scantyindigenous Christians ofSyria, as may be inferred from the relations betweenPaul of Samosata andZenobia, no less than from the policy adopted by Romeagainst him.

The Edict of Milan (A.D. 313) marks the beginning of a better-known period in thehistory of Syrian Christianity, during which the See ofAntioch was filled by asuccession of bishopsillustrious throughout thechurch, and the Church inSyria was involved in the most troublesome period ofchurch history and theology, which marks the beginning of those fatal schisms,heresies, and Christologicalcontroversies which led to the final separation of theSyrian Church and theChurches of the East from the Church of Rome (seeARIANISM; NESTORIANISM;MONOPHYSITISM). The death of Severus (542), thedeposed MonophysitePatriarch of Antioch, may be taken to mark the beginning of a new period in the historyof the Syrian Church; for from this date the doublesuccession in the See ofAntioch has been maintained to the present day. The death of Emperor Maurice (A.D. 602), and the succession of his murderer, Phocas, gave the signal for the Persians to ravage the Romandominions. HithertoMesopotamia had been the arena of war between the rival powers, and Dara,Amida, and Nisibis the keysof possession. But Heracliuscame to the throne in 602 to find all Syria in the hands of Chosroes. First Damascus, then the holy city itself fell before the Persian generalShahrbarz (614), and thePatriarch Zecharius was carried off with the True Cross itself, to grace theinfidel's triumph. Never sinceConstantinople was built had there been such a disaster; and at Chalcedon itself, almost opposite the very walls of the capital, thePersians were encamped, stretching out their hands to the Slavs and the Avars, who threatened the city on the north side of the isthmus, and inviting them to join in its destruction. An insulting and blasphemous letter from the Persian king aroused the emperor and allChristendom; while fromConstantinople to Arabia theChurch poured forth her treasures of plate and money to help in thecrusade. Constantinople was fortified, and with a gigantic effort, worthy of the great conquerors of the world'shistory, Heraclius drove back the Persians, cutting them off in Celicia, and forcing them finally to make an abject appeal for mercy in the very royal palace ofDastagerd itself. Chosroes had been already murderedby his son, who submitted toHeraclius (A.D. 628). The emperor returned, leaving the East in peace, to restore the cross to its place inJerusalem.

Meanwhile in an obscure corner of the empireMohammed had been born, and in this very year sent round a letter demanding for a new creed the submission of the kings of the earth. "The year of flight" (622) had passed, and Mohammedwas at the head of a devoted band of followers ready to conquer Arabia and perhaps the world. It was an epoch of the world's history, and twice the patriarchs of Jerusalemsaw the abomination of desolation standing in theholy place, and thought the end of all things at hand. Ten years after Sharzbarz (637), when the glories of Heracliuspaled before the storm ofArab conquest, Sophroniusthe Patriarch and Omar theArab stood side by side at the altar of the Church of theHoly Sepulchre inJerusalem. East of the Mediterranean the Roman Empire had given way forever, and the Arab arms now ruled the Churcheswhich the councils of two centuries before had cut off from the orthodoxcommunion. For the future it was not the Melchite orImperialist to whom theEastern Churches were to acknowledge an unwilling homage, but the sword ofIslam. Byzantine history now affected them little, for thesuccessors of Heraclius had enough to do to keep theSaracen fleets away from the capital. The famousIconoclastic controversybegun by Leo the Isaurian, was continued for nearly a hundred years (720-802) by his successors. How little the second great controversy of the times affected theSyrians may be judged by their own language in regard to the "Procession of theHoly Ghost." The words inserted in the Creed by theWestern Church were the occasion of the rupture, for which the rival claims ofGregory of Rome and John Scholasticus ofConstantinople had paved the way; and the ninth century witnessed the unseemly recriminations and the final break between the two great communions.

In the seventh century theSyrian Christians fade from the general history of the Church. The Arabs were inclined to favour them as rivals of the Greeks and early in the eighth century Wâlid secured the entry of theirpatriarch into Antioch, whence they had been driven by the Greeks since the death of Jacobus Baradæus. But he remained there only a short time, nor where his people free from thepersecutions whichAbdelmalik and Yazid ordered against theChristians; while in 771 theKhalif Abdullah took acensus throughout Syria andMesopotamia, ordering allJews and Christians, especially at Jerusalem, to be branded on the neck and forehead. A short-lived union between the Syrians and theArmenians (726) was followed by persecution at the hands of the Greeks(750), who took away manySyrians and Armenian slavesfrom Mesopotamia to theWest. Two centuries later,Nicephorus Phocas, anxious to unite Christendom against the Arabs, caused John Sarighta, the Patriarch of theSyrians, to be brought toConstantinople, there to discuss with Polyeuctus,patriarch of that city, the differences that divided them. In the letter written byJohn to Mennas ofAlexandria we perceive how much the controversy had become a mere matter of verbal expression, and how the Syrians clung to the words which Greek tyranny had made the badge of a rival party. Theimprisonment of John, added to other acts of tyranny, confirmed theirhatred of the Greeks, and made them prefer even the domination of the Moslem. From the eighth and ninth century down to our own times the history ofChristianity in Syria is thehistory of Nestorianism and of the Nestorian Church, ofEutychianism and theMonophysite or JacobiteSyrian Church, of theMonophysite ArmenianChurch of Syria, of the GreekSchism, and of theByzantine, Russian, andGreek, or the so-calledOrthodox Eastern Church; the Schismatic and Melchite(Catholic) GreekPatriarchates of Antioch, theLatin Patriarchate of Antioch, and the Maronite Church, for all which see respective articles.

Statistics of the various Christian sects and Churches

The Christians of modernSyria, schismatic as well asCatholic, are divided into the following sects andchurches:

Greek Orthodox, i. e., the Syrian Greek Schismatic Church

The Greek Orthodox of Syria are under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of the GreekOrthodox of Antioch, whose residence is at Damascusand who has under hisjurisdiction two suffragan orauxiliary bishops attached to him personally, and 13eparchies, or archdioceses, 50,000 families, or about 250,000 subjects, most of whom dwell in Syria proper. Of these thirteen eparchies, eleven are in Syria, one in Northern Mesopotamia, one in Armenia and Asia Minor. The Greek Orthodox of Syria have 5 schools with 810 pupils in Beirut; 24 inDamascus and surrounding villages, with 2215 pupils and 60 teachers; and 12 in northern Syria with 2400 pupils and 65 teachers. Theliturgy of the Syrian GreekOrthodox is that of the Greek Church, and the liturgicallanguage, Greek with a great deal of Arabic, which is the vernacular of all theChristians of Syria.

Greek Melchites, i.e. the Catholic Syrians of the Greek Rite

These are under thejurisdiction of the Greek-Melchite Patriarch ofAntioch, whose residence is at Damascus, and who has under his patriarchaljurisdiction 4 archdioceses, 8 dioceses, 2 patriarchalvicariates (at Jerusalem andAlexandria), with a total of about 125,000 thousandsouls, divided as follows: (1)Archdiocese of Aleppo, 6churches and chapels, 10,000 souls, 86 collegessuperintended byFranciscan, Capuchin, andJesuit missionaries; (2)Archdiocese of Bostra and Hauran with 12,000 souls, 4churches and 8 chapels, 15priests and 4 schools; (3)Archdiocese of Homs and Hamah, with 8000 souls, 20churches and chapels, 20priests and 18 schools, residence at Homs; (4)Archdiocese of Tyre, with 6200 souls, 11 churches andchapels, 20 priests, of which 15 are Basilian monks, and 13 schools, residence at Sur (Tyre); (5) Diocese of Beirutand Djebail, with 15,000souls, one seminary at Ain-Traz, 150 parishes, 195churches and chapels, and 19 schools, residence atBeirut; (6) Diocese at Cæsarea-Philipi, or Baneas, with 4500 souls, 15 parishes, 9 churches and chapels, 17priests, and 19 schools, residence at Gemaidat-Marjoun; (7) Diocese of Damascus, of which thepatriarch himself is the ordinary, with one suffraganbishop, with 12,000 souls, 9parishes, and 9 churches; (8)Diocese of Heliopolis orBa'albeck, with 5000 souls, 9parishes, 10 churches, 15priests and 8 schools, residence at Ba'albeck; (9)Diocese of Ptolemais orSaint John of Acre, with 9000 souls, 24 stations, 25churches, 34 priests, and 8schools, residence at Akka; (10) Diocese of Sidon, with 18,000 souls, 38 churchesand chapels, 41 priests, 34schools, residence at Sayda; (11) Diocese of Tripoli, erected in 1897; (12) Diocese of Zahle and Furzoul, with 17,000 souls, 30 churchesand chapels, 35 priests, 12schools, residence at Zahle.

The two patriarchalvicariates at Jerusalem andAlexandria have a dozenparishes in the latter and four or five parishes in the former. The Greek-Melchiteshave also a parish with achurch in Marseilles, another in Paris (since 1889), and several in the United States. In Jerusalem they have theseminary of St. Anne, founded in 1882 by Cardinal Lavigerie, under the direction of the White Fathers. The number of these average between 125 and 150. They have also a seminary inRome founded for them in 1577 by Gregory XIII, under the name of College of St. Athanasius; also a smallseminary in Beirut, and a larger one at Ain-Traz. Threeindigenous religious orders, for men and women alike, are still in existence in Syria, viz: The Aleppine, with 40monks and 18 nuns; theBaladites of the Order of St. John, with 96 monks and 42nuns; and the Mokhallakites, or Salvatorians, with 200monks and 25 nuns. The rules followed by these threeorders are either those of St. Basil or St. George. From the time of Gregory XIV (1831-46) the patriarch of theGreek-Melchites is allowed to assume the title of "Patriarch of Antioch,Alexandria, and Jerusalem".

The Syrian Jacobites, i.e. Monophysites

They are under thejurisdiction of the SyrianJacobite Patriarch ofAntioch, whose residence is at Der-el-Zafaran nearMardan in NorthernMesopotamia. The SyrianJacobites were formerly very numerous and scattered all over Western Asia, Egypt, and India, having had in the twelfth and thirteen centuries as many as 20metropolitans and 100bishops or dioceses. At present they have but eightarchbishops and 3 bishopswith a total of about 80,000souls, not including those ofMalabar, in India, who are not under the directjurisdiction of the SyrianJacobite Patriarch ofAntioch. The episcopal seesof this church, with the exception of that ofJerusalem, whose titularbishop resides at Za'faran near Mardan, are all situated in Mesopotamia, and in the extreme northeastern section of Syria. Theirliturgical language is Syriac(see MONOPHYSITES).

Catholic Syrians

These consist mainly of those Syrian Jacobites who in the last five or six centuries have gradually given up the Monophysiteheresy, and embraced theCatholic faith, though retaining their Syrian rite, customs, and liturgy. In course of time they have become numerous enough to have a patriarch of their own with several dioceseand bishops. They are to be found mainly in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, andBabylonia. Their patriarch, whose official residence is atMardin, but who lives sometimes in Mosul, and sometimes in Aleppo orBeirut, in Syria, is officially entitled the "Syrian Patriarchof Antioch", having under hisjurisdiction nine diocese with a total of about 40,000 souls, divided as follows: (1)Diocese of Bagdad, with 2000 souls, 3 churches, 6priests, and 1 school, residence Bagdad; (2)Diocese of Damascus with 4000 souls, 6 parishes, 6churches, 12 priests, and 6schools, residenceDamascus; (3) Archdioceseof Homs and Hanah, with 3000 souls, 5 parishes and 5churches, residence Homs; (4) Diocese of Aleppo, with 4000 souls, 3 parishes, 3churches, and 15 priests, residence at Aleppo; (5)Diocese of Beirut, with 700souls, 1 church and 3priests; (6) Diocese of Diarbekir, with 1000 souls, 3parishes, 3 churches, and 7priests; (7) Diocese of Djezire, with 2000 souls, 7churches, 10 priests, and 6schools, residence at Djezire; (8) Diocese of Mardin with 5000 souls, 7 stations, 9churches, 25 priests, and 7schools; (9) Diocese of Mosul, with 10,000 souls, 8parishes, 12 churches, and 25 priests, residence Mosul. The liturgical language of this church is Syriac.

Catholics of the Latin Rite

The Catholics of the Latin Rite in Syria are not very numerous, and are under thejurisdiction of the Apostolic Delegate of Syria, whose residence is at Beirut(formerly at Aleppo). They number about 7000, scattered all over the large towns of Syria, and are either of Italian or French descent, having settled in Syria mainly for commercial oreducational purposes. The so-called Latin Patriarchateof Antioch owes its origins to the times of the Crusades of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, in connection with the LatinPatriarchate of Jerusalem, both of which nowadays are simply titular, without anyjurisdiction, and their titulars reside in Rome. The LatinPatriarch of Antioch has under his titular jurisdictionthe following titulararchbishoprics: Apamea,Adana, Tarsus, Anazarbe,Seleucia, Irenopolis, Cyr,Hierapolis, Edessa, Amida,Nisibis, Emesa, Heliopolis,Palmyra, Damascus,Philadelphia, Bostra, Almire,Derbe, Epiphania, Gabala, and Rosea. For Armenians (Catholic or schismatic), seeARMENIA; for Chaldeans (Catholic) see CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS. The last group of Christians in Syria, and perhaps the most important one, consists of theMaronites of Mt. Lebanon. They form by far the largestChristian community of Syria and are all in union with theCatholic Church. (SeeMARONITES)

The latest approximatestatistics of the population and various denominationsof Syria are—total population, 3,226,160;Mohammedans, 2,209,450;Catholic Christians, 555,949; non-Catholic Christians, 435,389; Nusairiyyeh, about 150,000; Ismailiyyeh, about 120,000; Druzes, about 70,000; Jews, 65,246.

Catholic missions in Syria

The beginnings of Catholicmissions in Syria may be appropriately traced back to the age of the Crusaders and the establishment of theLatin Patriarchate of Antiochin 1100, and that of theVicariate Apostolic of Aleppoin 1762. The first LatinPatriarch of Antioch was appointed in either 1100 (according to Le Quien) or 1098 (according to MasLatrie) by Pope Urban II. The first appointee was Bernard,Bishop of Artesia, nearAntioch. He died in 1132 and was succeeded by Raoul, from Dumfront in Normandy, who, owing to flagrant actsof impertinence and insubordination to the Holy See, was forced to resign in 1142. He was succeeded by Aimeric or Amaury, ofLimoges, who, having incurred the displeasure ofRenaud de Chatillion, Princeof Antioch, was persecuted, tortured, and finally compelled to flee toJerusalem. In 1160, however, he was restored to his see byBaudouin II, Prince ofAleppo. Soon, however, Behemond III, Prince ofAntioch, drove Amaury out of his see and offered it, instead, in 1611, to the Greekpatriarch, Athanasius. On the death of the latter in 1170,caused by a terrific earthquake, in which most of the Greek clergy also lost their lives, the Greeks lost their influence and power with the people. In 1196 Amaury himself died, and was succeeded by Pierre d'Angouléme, Bishop of Tripoli. In 1204 Pierre ofCapua, known as Pierred'Amalfi, was chosenPatriarch of Antioch. Bohemond IV, however, soon began to intrigue to replace him with the Greek Patriarch,Simeon III; but he wasexcommunicated by thePatriarch and by the popehimself, Innocent III, whichcaused the whole Latinclergy to rebel against the king. Pietro d'Amalfi, nevertheless, wasimprisoned by Bohemond and died in 1208, and was succeeded by the LatinBishop of Jerusalem, Pietro d'Capoa, nephew of the deceased patriarch. Bohemond IV, however refused to acknowledge him. In the meanwhile, after many quarrels and vicissitudes, King Bohemond and theLatin clergy agreed to theelection of Ranier, in 1219, as Patriarch of Antioch, after having succeeded in inducing the pope to createthe Greek occupant of thesee, the Patriarch Peter, acardinal. Ranier died in 1226 and was succeeded in 1228 by Albert Rezato, who was present at the Council ofLyon in 1245 and who died a short time afterwards.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries severalLatin patriarchs occupied thesee of Antioch, but were constantly harassed and molested by the Greek clergyand by the Frankish princes themselves, who for political purposes were ever ready tosacrifice religious interestsin order to secure the goodwill of the native GreekSyrians. In the year 1348, however, the LatinPatriarchate of Antiochcame to an end, as far as effective jurisdiction was concerned, although it continued to exist till our own time simply as a titular dignity. The present LatinPatriarch of Antioch resides in Rome. In the thirteenth century, however, when it was at its height, the LatinPatriarchate of Antioch had under its jurisdictionLaodicea, Gabala, Antaradusor Tortosa, Tripoli, Biblos,Seleucia, Tarsus, Corycos, Mamistra, Edessa, Apamea, Balanea, Artesia, Albaria,Larissa, Mariames,Hierapolis, Cyr, Nicosia,Paphos, Famagusta, and Limasol (see Le Quien, "Oriens Christianus", III, 1165-1232). During these two centuries, the presence of so many Catholic bishops,clergy, and lay people in Palestine and Syria was productive of good Catholicmissionary results, as, owing precisely to the contact of the Latins with the variousOriental SchismaticChurches of the Near East, a large number of Greeks,Nestorians, Jacobite Syrians, and MonophysiteArmenians, not infrequently led by their own bishops andclergy, embraced theCatholic Faith.

The second centre ofCatholic propaganda in Syria was the Latin Vicariate Apostolic of Aleppo. Thisvicariate was first established in 1762, extending its jurisdiction and its beneficial missionary influence all over Syria,Cyprus, Egypt, and Arabia, all of which provinces were then, by a special decree of the Congregation of the Propaganda, detached from the Vicariate Apostolic ofConstantinople. Its first occupant was the LazaristBassu. After his death, and, in fact, several decades later, in 1817, he was succeeded by Mgr. Gandolfi, of theCongregation of the Mission, who was replaced in 1827 by Mgr. Losanna, titular bishopof Abydos. From 1827 down to 1896, owing to the specialrights and privileges enjoyed by the Franciscans as the custodians of the Holy Land, all the Latin Vicars Apostolicof Aleppo were selected from the Franciscan order as follows: A. Fazio (1836-38); Father Fillardell (1839-52) who died a martyr inConstantinople in 1852; P. Brunoni (1853); S. Milani(1874-76); L. Piavi in 1877, who in 1899 was made LatinPatriarch of Jerusalem; and G. Bonfigli in 1890, who in 1896 was transferred to theLatin Vicariate Apostolic ofEgypt. In the meanwhile the residence was transferred from Aleppo to Beirut, which was gradually becoming the most influential and progressive town of the NearEast. In 1896 a FrenchDominican, Mgr CharlesDuval, for nearly thirty years missionary at Mosul, succeeded Bonfigli. Duval died in 1904 and was succeeded on January 17 of the following year (1905) by Mgr. Frediano Giannini, titular Archbishop of Serra.

During the course of the nineteenth century theVicariate Apostolic of Syria suffered several losses. In 1838, Egypt and Arabia were taken away; and in 1848Jerusalem was elevated to the rank of Latin patriarchatewith jurisdiction over Palestine, Southern Phœnicia, and the islands ofCyprus. But on the other hand the Vicariate Apostolicof Syria obtained fulljurisdiction over all theLatins of this vicariate, this prerogative being definitely withdrawn from the supervision of the Holy Land. The Vicariate Apostolic ofSyria embraces at present the following territory: on the north its boundary line starts from the Gulf of Adalia, and touching the southern limits of Taurus, stretches toward the Euphrates, making a bend at Hamah. On the east it is the desert of Palmyra; on the south, Palestine; on the west the Mediterranean Sea. Since their institution the vicars of Syria have held the title vicars Apostolic of the Holy See for the non-Latin Catholics who live within the limits of theirprovince. Their power as delegates, however, has not undergone the same restrictions as their authority of Vicars Apostolic; andCatholics of the Oriental Ritein the Latin Patriarchate ofJerusalem are subject toSyria by way of delegation.

The Latin communities, especially the French, have developed very extensively, particularly in this century, under the Vicariate Apostolicof Syria. They afford at the present time the strongest bulwark against the increasing encroachments of both Protestant andorthodox missions which are seducing with money and promises the hard-working but poor people of Syria. TheCapuchins, stationed in Syria since 1627, care for theparishes of Antioch, Baabdath, Beirut andMersina; they have besides houses at Aleppo, Abey, Ghazir Koderbeck, and Salima. Their religioushowever are but few in number. The Franciscanshave twelve convents in the following places: Aintab,Aleppo, Beirut, Damascus, Harissa, Ienige-Kale, Kenaye,Latakie, Marash, Sayda,Sour, and Tripoli. They also have ten parishes and number about 56 religious. Their college at Aleppo is in a flourishing condition and numbers 140 pupils. TheTrappists have a house at Sheikle by Akbes, nearAlexandretta. The Lazarists, established at Syria since 1784, have five houses withparishes and missions atAntoura, Beirut, Damascus, and Tripoli. They number about 37 religious and possess in the villages ofLebanon a large number of primary schools which they themselves visit and maintain. The Carmelites, stationed in Syria since 1650, have five residences: at Alexandretta, which forms a parish, in Beylan, Biscerri, Kobbayat, and Tripoli. Theirreligious are about 8 in number. The Brothers of the Christian Schools have four primary schools in Beirut,Latakie, Tripoli, and Tripoli-by-the-Sea.

The Jesuits were established for the first time in 1595, and later returned to Syria at the invitation of Mgr. Mazloum and in obedience to the order of Gregory XVI. Their mission numbers 174 members, of whom 66 arepriests, 47 scholastics, and 61 brother assistants. After being stationed at Zeilah, and later in Mesopotamia, the Jesuits founded atGhazir in 1846 the orientalSeminary which was transferred to Beirut in 1875 and has an enrollment of 50 students. This seminary has already sent forth over 130priests. The youngerreligious of the Antonines, of the Maronite Rite, or theBasilian and of the Greek Rite, follow their courses ofphilosophy and theologywith the seminarists, all being related by similarity ofrite. In 1848 the Jesuitsestablished another collegeat Ghazir; this, too, was transferred to Beirut and has become the celebrated College of St. Joseph. At 1883 the medical school was added, which today is attended by 130 students; the college has 500 students enrolled. Eight religiousprofessors and six Frenchdoctors take part in the instruction of the students and direct the most complete printing establishment in the Orient, publishing a bi-weekly newspaper in Arabic, the "Beshîr", and the bi-monthly Arabic review, "Al-Mashrik". In 1896 P. Barnier founded atSayda in the region of Akkar a normal school which is attended by 40 pupils; also an orphanage at Tanail.

During the last three centuries the Catholicmissionaries of Syria have had to contend against heavy odds and difficulties occasioned by theMohammedans, the Druzes, and the various OrientalSchismatic Churches, and, in the last century, also against many obstacles and antagonisms offered by theSyrian Protestant Missions. But notwithstanding opposition they have forgedahead and are regenerating the Christians of Syria into a new life, mainly through the channels of religiousinstruction, conversion, andeducational and philanthropic enterprise. TheJesuits, the Lazarists, and of late the Christian Brothershave achieved such progress in the line ofreligious and educationalwork that they have under their care, at the present, nearly 300 schools, with 400 teachers and some 14,000 pupils. The Jesuits alone have under their care 155 elementary schoolsscattered all over Syria; 5 inBeirut with 16 teachers and 900 pupils; 5 in Damascuswith 6 teachers and 250 pupils; 19 in Bikfaya with 29 teachers and 1300 pupils; 29 in Ghazir with 27 teachers and nearly 2000 pupils; 21 at Homs with 30 teachers and 1000 students; 27 at Saydawith 55 teachers and 1500 pupils; 18 at Tanail with 22 teachers and 900 students; and 21 at Zahle with 30 teachers and nearly 1300 students. The Lazarists, established in Syria in 1784, have under their care 110 elementary schools and nearly 6000 pupils. Their high school and college at Antours and Damascus have 300 and 200 students respectively. The Sisters of St. Vincent De Paul have charge of some 80 femaleschools and 4000 girls. TheSisters of Nazareth of Lyons, established in 1871, haveschools and pensionnats atBeirut, St. John of Acre, Shefamar, Haifa, andNazareth, with about 2000 pupils. The Sisters of St. Joseph of Marseilles, established in Syria in 1846, have several schools atBeirut, Sayda, Nazareth, Tyre, and Deir-el-Qamar, with about 1500 pupils. TheSisters of the Holy Family have a large school at Beirut, with over 250 pupils. TheSisters of the Good Shepard of Angers have anorphanage at Hammana, with 150 inmates. Finally, the Miriamettes, an order of native nuns, established in 1860, have under their care not less than 41 schools, 85 teachers, and some 3500 pupils, scattered all overSyria; 1 at Beirut, 2 at Celip, 9 at Bikfaya, 1 in Damascus, 6 at Ghazir, 2 at Homs, 6 atSayda, 6 at Tanail, and 8 atZahle.

Sources

BURCKHARDT, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822), 1-309; WORTABET, The Syrians (London, 1896); CHESNET, Euphrates Expedition, (London, 1838); RITTER, Erkunden von Asien, XVII, pts. 1 and 2 (Berlin, 1854-65); VON KREMER, Mittelsyrien und Damascus (Vienna, 1853); BURTON AND DRAKE, Unexplored Syria (London, 1852); RECLUS, Nouv. géog. univers. d'Asie Antérieure (1884); PORTER, Five Years in Damascus (London, 1855); BLUNT, Bedouins of the Euphrates (London, 1870); de VOGUE, Syrie Centrale (Paris, 1865-77); Idem, Syrie, Palestine, Mont Athos (Paris, 1879); SACHAU, Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien (Leipzig, 1883); MILLER, Alone through Syria (London, 1891); CHARMES, Voyage en Syrie (Paris, 1891); LADY BURTON, Inner Life of Syria (London, 1875); POST, Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai (Beirut, 1896); HUMANN and PUCKSTEIN, Reisen in Nord-Syrien (1890); POST, Essays on the Sects and Nationalities of Syria, etc. (London, 1890); GOODRICH-FREER, In a Syrian Saddle (London, 1905); "cenotes">For the religious history of Christian Syria, see the bibliographies appended to articles on the various Orientals schisms, Churches, rites, etc.; see also BURKIT, Early Eastern Christianity (London, 1904); HARNACK, Mission and Expansion of Christianity, etc (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1908); ADENEY, The Greek and the Eastern Churches (Edinburgh, 1908); FORTESCUE, The Orthodox Eastern Church (London, 1907); STANLEY, The Eastern Church (London, 1876); PERRY, Six Months in an Eastern Monastery (1905); BADGER, The Nestorians and Their Rituals (London, 1852); NEALE, Hist. of the Holy Eastern Church (5 vols., London, 1850-61); ASSEMANI, Bibliotheca Orientalis (4 vols., Rome, 1719-28); LA QUIEN, Oriens Christianus (Paris, 1740); SIDAROUSS, Des Patriarchats, etc (1906); de JEHAY, De la Situation des sujets Ottomans non-Mussulmans (Brussels, 1906); O'LEARY, The Syrian Church and Fathers (London, 1909); REBBATH, Documents pour servir á l'histoire du Christianisme en Orient I (Paris, 1905); CHARON, Hist. des Patriarchats Melkites etc. (Rome, 1909—); AVRIL, Les Eglises autonomes et autocéphales (1895); Idem, Les Grecs melkites (1988); Idem, Une Mission religieuse en Orient au XVIe siècle (1866); BETH, Die Orientalisch Christenheit der Mittelmeerländer (Berlin, 1902); BREHIER, Le schisme Orientale du XIe siècle (1899); BRIGHTMAN, Liturgies, Eastern and Western, I (Oxford, 1896); DUCHESNE, The Churches Separated from Rome (New York, 1907); HEFELE - LE CLERQ, Hist. de Conciles (Paris, 1907, sqq.); NILLES, Kalendarium Manuale utriusque Ecclesiæ Orientalis et Occidentalis (Innsbruck, 1896-97); PISANI, Etudes d'historie religiuse á travers l'Orient (Paris, 1897); Pitzipios, L'Église Orientale (1855); SHOPOFF, Les Réformes et la Protection des Chrétiens de Turquie 1673-1904 (Paris, 1904); VERNAY and DAMBMANN. Le Puissances étrangères dans le Levant, en Syrie et en Palestine (1900); See also the general histories of the Church by SCHAFF, HERGENBÖTHER, ALZOG, DUCHESNE, etc., and in particular the two French periodicals devoted mainly to the study of the oriental churches, viz: Revue de l'Orient Chrétien and L'Echos d'Orient, Paris; also the full bibliography in Chevalier's Répertoire des sources historiques du Moyen Age, under the articles Syrie and Antioche.

Catholic Missions.—WADDING, Anales Minorum (10 vols, 1731-45); MARCELLINO da CIVEZZO, Storia Universale delle Missioni francescane (4 vols, 1859); LA QUIEN, Oriens Christ. (Paris, 1740); Missiones Catholicæ descriptæ (Rome, 1901); PIOLET, Les Missions Cath. Francasies au XIXe siècle I (Paris, 1901), 295-360; LIVET, Les Missions Cath. au XIXe siècle (Lille, 1895); LAUNAY, Hist. des Missions Etrangères (3 vols., Paris, 1894); HENRION, Hist. des Missions Cath. (Paris, 1847); PISANI, op. cit.; WERNER, Atlas des Missions Cath. (Freiburg, 1886); Annales des Propagation de la foi (Lyons), passim; Bulletin des Œuvres d'Orient, passim; SILBERNAGL, Verfassung der Kirchen des Orients (Ratisbon, 1865); KOEHLER, Die katholischen der Kirchen des Morganlandes (Darmstadt, 1906)' WERNER, Orbis terrarum catholicus (Freiburg, 1890); FRANCO, L'Église Greque Melchite, etc. (1898); JULIEN, La nouvelle mission de la compagnie de Jésus en Syrie (Tours, 1899); W. M. MARSHALL, Christian Missions (London, 1888); HAHN, Gesch. des katho. Missionen (5 vols., Cologne, 1857-1865); DJUNKOVSKY, Dict. des Missions Cath (Paris, 1864); BERNARDEN DE ROUEN, Hist. universalle des missions franciscaines (Paris, 1898); and the two reviews mentioned above viz: Revue de l'Orient Chrétien, passim, and L'Echos d'Orient.